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By - March 5, Updated - May 2, Evolution itself is simply the process of change over time. When applied to biology, evolution generally refers to changes in life forms over time. The Theory of Biological Evolution is most often associated with Charles Darwin, because it was Charles Darwin that proposed the mechanism of natural selection and accompanied that proposition with a large volume of empirical data providing evidence for biological evolution.
Darwin was not, however, the first person to propose an evolutionary explanation for the diversity of life on earth. In fact, evolutionary concepts about life date far back into history and arose in many different cultures.
There are literally thousands of different mythological stories about the origin of the world and of life. There are several common themes in origin mythology, but there are many different means by which the universe, earth, life, and man have come into being throughout the various different origin myths. The importance and role of origin mythology has varied widely from culture to culture throughout history as well.
In many archaic cultures origin mythology was not central to the belief system, nor were the origin myths fully thought-out to a logical conclusion. In societies that did not have writing, origin myths, like all of the other myths, were passed down orally, and often served as a form of entertainment as well as a means of passing on beliefs that were important to the society.
When looking at origin myths from around the world several patterns can be observed. The origin myths of pre-agricultural societies tend to place humans and animals in close relations, while the origin myths of agricultural societies tend describe a separate creation of humans. Among more technologically advanced societies, where separation between humans and other animals was more pronounced and where humans had domesticated animals, themes such as the domination of man over animals, the separate creation of man from animals, and the creation of animals for the use of man are common themes in origin mythology.
Australian Aboriginal culture is thought to be the oldest continuous culture in the world, due to the isolation of the Australian continent. Below is one telling of Aboriginal Australian origin mythology. In the beginning the earth was a bare plain. All was dark. There was no life, no death. The sun, the moon, and the stars slept beneath the earth. All the eternal ancestors slept there, too, until at last they woke themselves out of their own eternity and broke through to the surface.
When the eternal ancestors arose, in the Dreamtime, they wandered the earth, sometimes in animal form - as kangaroos, or emus, or lizards -- sometimes in human shape, sometimes part animal and human, sometimes as part human and plant.
Two such beings, self-created out of nothing, were the Ungambikula. Wandering the world, they found half-made human beings. They were made of animals and plants, but were shapeless bundles, lying higgledy-piggledy, near where water holes and salt lakes could be created.
The people were all doubled over into balls, vague and unfinished, without limbs or features. With their great stone knives, the Ungambikula carved heads, bodies, legs, and arms out of the bundles.
They made the faces, and the hands and feet. At last the human beings were finished. Thus every man and woman was transformed from nature and owes allegiance to the totem of the animal or the plant that made the bundle they were created from -- such as the plum tree, the grass seed, the large and small lizards, the parakeet, or the rat.
This work done, the ancestors went back to sleep. Some of them returned to underground homes, others became rocks and trees. The trails the ancestors walked in the Dreamtime are holy trails. Everywhere the ancestors went, they left sacred traces of their presence -- a rock, a waterhole, a tree. This origin myth, like many archaic myths, demonstrates the concept of a common ancestry between humans and other animals. In many Native American and Asian mythologies there is no specific creator god or act of creation, instead the world is said to have formed out of chaos, and the development of life is said to be a product of some spirit force.
This spirit force is often said in these belief systems to be ever-present and continually acting. Native American mythology generally presents humans and animals as being related and having common ancestry.
Many different Native American cultures discovered and interpreted fossils and integrated the knowledge of fossils into their origin mythology. Various origin myths can be identified as having come from Asia, but origin mythology has not held an important role in Asia for many centuries.
This is largely because much of Asia came to be dominated by Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism, all of which are highly philosophical and say little or nothing about origins. Many of the ancient European cultures, such as the Celts, the Huns, those of the Scandinavians, and many others, believed in a common tie between the "animal" and "human" world.
Indeed for many there was no separation at all. This is one reason why the wearing of animal hides was a common ritual practice among the so-called "barbarian" tribes of Europe. It was precisely this belief in the unity of the human and animal world that that was seen as "pagan" and primitive by later Christians of the Roman Empire and post-imperial Romanized societies.
The belief that humans and the animal world are united has been one of the major beliefs that Christians have worked to stamp out over the past two millennia of Christian expansionism. First throughout Europe, and then throughout North and South America, Christians have come into conflict with cultures that viewed humans as having descended, in some form, either spiritually or bodily, from animals.
In every case Christians have fought intensely for the past 2, years to eradicate the belief that humans and animals have a close relationship.
Mesopotamia is known as the "cradle of civilization", and for good reason. It is in Mesopotamia that writing, farming, and the domestication of animals is thought to have first taken place. Civilization from this region had wide ranging impacts on the surrounding area as the practices of writing, farming, domestication, law, and coinage spread east and west to influence other cultures.
It is also from Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean that we find the most developed creation myths that tell of a separate creation of man and of the domination of man over the rest of the animal world.
The Sumerians, because they were the first to develop writing, recorded one of the oldest known origin myths. Sumerian mythology tells that the gods lived on earth where they worked and toiled. After some time, the gods grew tired of working so they created humans to do their work for them. In Sumerian mythology a team of six gods created humans from a special mud. During the creation several different "defective" people were made, non-sexual, sterile, diseased, and blind explaining why it is that such afflicted people exist on the earth.
Animals, in this case, already existed and were of a completely separate origin. The people were made in the image of the gods, to be like the gods, but they were mortal and imperfect. This mythology tells that people were created for the purpose of laboring and ruling over the animals and farm fields.
In a major telling of Babylonian creation myth, Enuma Elish , which was based on the Sumerian story, the primary Babylonian god Marduk is credited with directing the creation of the heavens and the earth through six cycles and creating man as the final and ultimate act of his creation. The purpose of creation, again, was to remove the burden of work from the gods by creating humans in the form of gods to take on the burden of work. In the Babylonian myth the blood of Kingu, a god who led a rebellion against Marduk, was used to create mankind.
Yes, I will create mankind! Kingu it was who created the strife, And caused Tiamat to rebel and prepare for battle. They [the gods] bound him and held him before Ea; Punishment they inflicted upon him by cutting the arteries of his blood.
With his blood they created mankind; He [Ea] imposed the services of the gods upon them and set the gods free. After Ea, the wise, had created mankind, And they had imposed the services of the gods upon them- That work was not suited to human understanding; In accordance with the ingenious plans of Marduk did Nudimmud [Ea] create it.
In the Sumerian myth the humans have no divinity, but in the Babylonian myth people are given partial divinity by their creation from the blood of a god, but the god from which they were made was rebellious and deceitful, thus giving the explanation for the "negative" aspects of human behavior. Like the creation myths of the Sumerians and Babylonians, the creation myth of the Hebrews tells of a separate and special creation of man.
In the Hebrew myth man is also given dominion over the plant and animal kingdoms. It is also worthy of note that the Genesis myth, like the Sumerian and Babylonian myths as well as other Mesopotamian myths , mentions the existence of cattle domesticated animals at the time of creation. All of these myths were obviously influenced by the fact that their civilizations had control over animals.
Importantly as well, all of these myths reflect the fact that these were civilizations where work was portrayed as the objective of life. Moving from the mythical and religious realm to the philosophical, the Greeks made substantial philosophical arguments in favor of a universe created and designed by a creator god for the use of man.
Many different schools of philosophy developed in Greece. Stoicism was a Greek school of philosophy that, while ostensibly non-religious and anti-superstitious, viewed the universe as being intelligently designed by a rational creator, who continued to govern the universe through his divine providence. In the tradition of his time the work was written in dialog format.
In The Nature Cicero put forward the positions of the major schools of Greek philosophy relating to gods, the universe, and life. The Nature was a widely read work by Roman scholars and early Roman Christians; such men as Saint Augustine were influenced by the work. The Nature also, of course, reflects the views and opinions that prevailed in Mediterranean society shortly before the birth of Christianity.
In The Nature Cicero summarized the arguments for and against views, including those of Platonic Stoics, that the universe was created by an intelligent force for the use of man, and thus the book serves as a good window into that school of philosophy. Or is it that when we see anything such as a globe, or horologe, or numerous other things, moving by means of some kind of mechanism, we make no question of their being the work of intelligence, and yet are skeptical, although we see the heavens rushing on with marvelous speed, and bringing about with the utmost regularity the yearly recurring changes of the seasons by their revolution, ensuring thereby the most complete well-being and preservation of all things,—are we, I say, skeptical as to such phenomena being the result not merely of intelligence, but of an intelligence which is exalted and divine?
For we may now set aside the refinements of argument, and survey, as it were, with our eyes the beauty of the things which we say were instituted by the divine providence. And in the first place let us note the earth as a whole, which is situated in the central quarter of the universe, and is solid, spherical, gathered at every point into that shape by its own gravity, and clothed with flowers, herbs, trees, and fruits, the incredible multitude of all these being set off by a variety which cannot tire.
Add to them the cool perennial springs, the liquid transparency of the rivers, the green covering of the banks, the vast hollows of the caves, the rugged rocks, the lofty overhanging mountains, and the boundless plains; add, too, the hidden veins of gold and silver, and the limitless wealth of marble.
And what tribes of animals, there are, both tame and wild, and how various! How shall I next speak of the race of men, the appointed cultivators, as it were, of the earth, who neither allow it to become the lair of savage beasts, nor to be turned into a waste by a rough undergrowth, and whose handiwork makes bright the fields and islands and coasts, dotting them with houses and cities? If we could see these things with our eyes, as we can with our mind, no one, when he gazed upon the earth in its completeness, would doubt as to the divine intelligence.
The conclusion is thus reached upon every hand, and from every consideration, that everything in this universe is marvelously administered by the divine intelligence and forethought with a view to the safety and preservation of all things. But it will be asked for whose sake so vast a work was carried out. Was it for the sake of trees and herbs, which though without sensation are nevertheless sustained by Nature? No, that at any rate is absurd. Was it for the sake of animals?
It is equally improbable that the gods went to such pains for beings that are dumb and without understanding. For whose sake, then, would one say that the universe was formed? For the sake, undoubtedly, of those animate beings that exercise reason. These are gods and men, whom nothing assuredly transcends in excellence, since reason is the highest of all things. It is thus credibly established that the universe and everything that is in it were made for the sake of gods and men.
Koffkathecat (Виктория Моисеева)
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By - March 5, Updated - May 2, Evolution itself is simply the process of change over time. When applied to biology, evolution generally refers to changes in life forms over time. The Theory of Biological Evolution is most often associated with Charles Darwin, because it was Charles Darwin that proposed the mechanism of natural selection and accompanied that proposition with a large volume of empirical data providing evidence for biological evolution. Darwin was not, however, the first person to propose an evolutionary explanation for the diversity of life on earth. In fact, evolutionary concepts about life date far back into history and arose in many different cultures. There are literally thousands of different mythological stories about the origin of the world and of life. There are several common themes in origin mythology, but there are many different means by which the universe, earth, life, and man have come into being throughout the various different origin myths. The importance and role of origin mythology has varied widely from culture to culture throughout history as well.
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Предыдущая тема :: Следующая тема. Двадцатипроцентное падение средней стоимости доставки контента через сети Content Delivery Network CDN в последующие несколько лет изменит экономику видеодоставки, сделав услугу OTT over-the-top дешевле, чем спутниковое вещание. Такой прогноз был сделан на саммите Connected TV Summit в Лондоне компанией Nagravision Nagra , поставщиком программного обеспечения для систем условного доступа и платного телевидения. Это случится, когда OTT доставка в дома станет дешевле для многих вещателей, чем непосредственное спутниковое вещание direct broadcast satellite, или DTH , с учетом факторов, таких, как география, количество подписчиков и задействованных каналов. Принимая во внимание типичную стоимость для каждого канала, специалисты из Nagra пришли к вводу, что если более одного миллиона зрителей используют сети CDN, доставка через них выходит дешевле, чем доставка DTH. При таких данных DTH доставка выходила все же дешевле для большего количества подписчиков, так как затраты практически одинаковые, но Десью оспорил это, сказав, что OTT скоро достигнет двух миллионов пользователей и тогда станет самым экономичным видом доставки для постоянно растущей аудитории подписчиков. Это означает, что для самых крупных DTH операторов, таких, например, как DirecTV в США, спутник будет оставаться самым эффективным видом доставки на протяжении целых десяти лет, хотя не во всех случаях.
Non-linear stories consist of a graph of multiple story "nodes". Each node is connected to one or more other nodes. These connections indicate the possible directions the storyline might take once the action of the given node is complete. The story this moves from one node to the next, choosing branches either at random or based on some sort of devision system.
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