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The new PMC design is here! Learn more about navigating our updated article layout. The PMC legacy view will also be available for a limited time. Federal government websites often end in. The site is secure. The chapter describes bacerial, viral, parasitic and fungal infections commonly detected in pet birds.


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The new PMC design is here! Learn more about navigating our updated article layout. The PMC legacy view will also be available for a limited time.

Federal government websites often end in. The site is secure. The chapter describes bacerial, viral, parasitic and fungal infections commonly detected in pet birds.

The chapter includes history, etiology, susceptible hosts, transmission, pathogenesis, clinical symptoms, lesion, diagnosis, zoonosis, Treatment and control strategy of Tuberculosis, Salmonellosis, Chlamydiosis, Campylobacteriosis, Lyme disease, other bacterial infection, Newcastle disease, Avian Influenza infection, West Nile Virus infection, Usutu virus infection, Avian Borna Virus infection, Beak and feather disease, other viral infection, Toxoplasmosis, Giardiasis, Cryptosporidiosis, other parasitic infection, Cryptococcosis, Aspergillosis, Other fungal infections.

In , Robert Koch first isolated , stained with alkaline methylene blue and vesuvin and established its etiologic relationship with tuberculosis. Koch described that the same human or bovine type Mycobacterium may cause avian tuberculosis. Strauss and Gamaleia and Maffucci cited in Cobbett illustrated that the etiological Mycobacterium of avian tuberculosis was different from human or bovine type.

Hinshaw and Ackermann et al. Coyle et al. Simultaneously in , Mycobacterium genavense was reported from pet birds in Europe Hoop et al. Mycobacterium avium subsp. It occurs singly, in pair or in bundle. It is difficult to demonstrate their gram positive nature due to high lipid content of the cell wall.

The stains are relatively impermeable to the bacterial cell. They can be easily stained by Ziehl-Neelsen ZN or acid fast staining technique. The genus Mycobacterium Actinomycetes family contains more than species.

Some are pathogenic for man and animals which grow slowly in artificial media in laboratory slow growers than the fast growers M. Previously, slow growing was sub divided into three types based on their host specificity i. Recent classification reveals that slow growing Mycobacterium is composed of several species. The most common species are Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex and M.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex is comprised of M. MAC is composed of two major species— M. There are total 28 serotypes of MAC and the serotypes 1—6, 8—11 and 21 belonged to M. Mycobacterium genavense forms a deep branch of Mycobacterial phylogentic tree with other members such as M. This group is characterized by slow growth albeit contains the signature molecule of fast growers short helix Among psittacine birds, grey-cheeked parakeets Brotogeris pyrrophterus , amazons Amazona spp.

Other psittacines such as green-winged macaws Ara chloroptera , cockatoos Cacatua spp. The non-cultivable is detected in blue and yellow macaw Ara ararauna and grey-cheeked parakeet Brotogeris pyrrhopterus. The common parrots African grey parrot, Senegal parrot are not considered as natural host of M.

Among non-psittacine group of birds, canary Serinus canaria , gouldian finch Chloebia gouldiae and zebra finch Poephila guttata castanotis are commonly infected with M. Synergistic infection of M. Occasionally canaries are also infected with M. MAC is transmitted in birds chiefly by ingestion, inhalation and rarely through arthropods. Bird to bird transmission in aviaries may occur through infected faeces or rarely by cannibalism. Occasionally skin abrasion acts as a route of mycobacterial infection in pet birds.

Ingestion is considered as a potential route of transmission of M. The environment specially drinking water is an identified source of M. Lung involvement in pet birds suggests inhalation as an additional route of transmission. Birds may act as reservoir of M. Bird to bird transmission of M. Immunosuppression plays a role in transmission of M.

Transmission of M. MAC enters the host chiefly through ingestion route of transmission and become present in the intestine. The waxy cell wall of the bacteria protects it from gastric acids and enzymes. During M. MAC M. Commensal mediated competitive inhibition is thus excluded and probably MAC enters M-cells like host adopted to invade the underlying blood monocytes. The M-cells are specialized cells of the follicle associated epithelium and the region is relatively free from commensal mediated competitive inhibition.

The invasion of monocytes is followed by bacterimia and subsequent haematogenous spread to liver, spleen and other organs. MAC enters the macrophages histiocytes of periarteriolar lymphoid sheath PALS zone in spleen within 10 days post infection in birds. Haematogenous spread of the organism leads to infection of bone marrow, lungs, air sacs, gonads and rarely, kidney and pancreas. The organs become enlarged due to accumulation of macrophages within organ parenchyma. Granuloma formation is an attempt of host tissue to localize the infection, although exploits it for their multiplication and further dissemination.

The growth of Mycobacterium occurs in the macrophages present in a granuloma. The infected macrophages undergo apoptosis and leave the encased bacteria which are engulfed by newly recruited macrophages.

Typical tuberculous granulomas in different organs are not frequent in M. Granulomas in different organs liver, kidney, intestine, muscle and subcutaneous tissues are observed in red-crowned parakeet Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae and green-winged macaw Ara chloroptera infected with M.

There is every possibility that they follow the same pattern of pathogenesis although still unexplored. Incubation period of mycobacteriosis in pet birds is 6 months to 4 years. Clinical syndrome in psittacine birds varies widely. In acute form, sudden death without any symptom is common. In chronic form, constant loss of weight along with diarrhoea Fig. The condition fails to respond to common antibiotics. Cutaneous masses are sometimes observed in skin and conjunctiva.

Inflammation of feather follicles folliculitis is occasionally observed which includes perifollicular swelling, erythema, pruritus and pain, restlessness, shivering and feather damaging behaviour. The liver and spleen are enlarged, mottled and whitish. Miliary abscess in liver are observed in budgerigars experimentally inoculated with M. The intestine becomes tubular, thickened and tan coloured. Involvement of lung is rare in pet birds affected with mycobacteriosis.

Some post mortem findings in canary Serinus canarius , eurasian goldfinch Carduelis carduelis and the red siskin Spinus cucullatus reported the occurrence of lung lesions. In a rare case of M. Post-mortem samples include vital organs such as liver, spleen, intestine, heart, lung and bone marrow. All the specimens should be immediately sent to the laboratory following the standard regulations for sending biohazardous substances.

If there is delay in sending, refrigeration of the samples should be done to prevent the growth of contaminants.

Addition of 0. The growth is periodically checked in every two weeks. The successful isolation of M. Other species of mycobacteria associated with pet bird causes opportunistic and sporadic infections in human.

The cases of reverse zoonosis anthroponosis are also reported where M. Successful treatment of pet birds is reported with various combinations of anti-tuberculous drugs at highest tolerable dose for a prolonged period 9 months or more.

Single anti-tuberculous drug is not preferred due to possibility of resistance development. Emergence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis MDR-TB; resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin and extremely drug-resistant tuberculosis XDR-TB; in addition to being multidrug-resistant the bacteria are resistant to fluoroquinolone and 1 of 3 antibiotics such as capreomycin, kanamycin and amikacin is a global problem now a days.

In most of the cases, dose is fixed on the basis of human paediatric studies because pharmacokinetic properties of anti-tuberculous drugs in pet birds are still unknown. The anti-tuberculous drugs and antibiotics used against M. Successful therapy of M. Treatment with clarithromycin, rifampin, and ethambutolm against M.

Due to zoonotic potential specially for children and elderly persons and immunocompromised patients, prolonged treatment and poor success rate, difficulty of drug administration to avian patients maintaining proper doses, natural and acquired antimicrobial resistance, poor owner compliance and moreover, lack of a proper treatment schedule, the debate exists regarding advice of treating pet birds against tuberculosis.

Nevertheless, euthanasia is the preferred measure in the prevention of tuberculosis in pet birds in relation to human health. For prevention of further transmission, removal of all organic matter and debris from cages, washing the cages and surroundings properly with disinfectants and maintenance of biosecurity measures are required. Chlorohexidine and quaternary ammonium compounds can act as mycobacteriostatic disinfectants.

Salmon first isolated from the infected pigs. Loeffler first described Salmonella Typhimurium from a natural outbreak of typhoid like infection in mice. Among the pet birds, Salmonellosis was first described in ducks Vandervort ; Keymer , and parakeets Kaye et al. The genus Salmonella is classified under the family Enterobacteriaceae that belongs to the order Enterobacteriales. There are two major species under the genus Salmonella i. A third proposed species is S.


Infectious Diseases

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